AMOS
[AIM us] (burden bearer) - the famous shepherd-prophet of the Old Testament who denounced the people of the northern kingdom of Israel for their idol worship, graft and corruption, and oppression of the poor. His prophecies and the few facts known about his life are found in the Book of Amos.

Although he prophesied to the Northern Kingdom, Amos was a native of Judah, Israel's sister nation to the south. He came from the village of Tekoa (Amos 1:1), situated about 16 kilometers (10 miles) south of Jerusalem.

On one occasion, Amos' authority in Israel was questioned by a priest who served in the court of King Jeroboam II, and Amos admitted he was not descended from a line of prophets or other religious officials. By vocation, he claimed to be nothing but "a herdsman and a tender of sycamore fruit" (Amos 7:14), but he pointed out that his right to speak came from the highest authority of all: "The Lord took me as I followed the flock, and the Lord said to me, 'Go, prophesy to My people Israel'" (Amos 7:15).

Amos spoke because the Lord had called him to deliver His message of judgment. This is one of the clearest statements of the compulsion of the divine call to be found in the Bible.

The theme of Amos' message was that Israel had rejected the one true God in order to worship false gods. He also condemned the wealthy class of the nation for cheating the poor through oppressive taxes (Amos 5:11) and the use of false weights and measures (Amos 8:5). He urged the people to turn from their sinful ways, to acknowledge God as their Maker and Redeemer, and to restore justice and righteousness in their dealings with others.

Amaziah the priest, who served in the court of King Jeroboam, made a report to the king about Amos and his message (Amos 7:10-13). This probably indicates that the prophet's stern warning created quite a stir throughout the land. But there is no record that the nation changed its ways as a result of Amos' message. About 40 years after his prophecies, Israel collapsed when the Assyrians overran their capital city, Samaria, and carried away the leading citizens as captives.

After preaching in Israel, Amos probably returned to his home in Tekoa. No facts are known about his later life or death. He will always serve as an example of courage and faithfulness.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)


AMOS, The BOOK OF
A prophetic book of the Old Testament noted for its fiery denunciation of the northern kingdom of Israel during a time of widespread idol worship and indulgent living. The book is named for its author, the prophet AMOS, whose name means "burden bearer." Amos lived up to his name as he declared God's message of judgment in dramatic fashion to a sinful and disobedient people.

Structure of the Book.
The nine chapters of the Book of Amos emphasize one central theme: The people of the nation of Israel have broken their COVENANT with God, and His judgment against their sin will be severe. After a brief introduction of Amos as the prophet (1:1-2), the book falls naturally into three major sections: (1) judgment against the nations, including Judah and Israel (1:3-2:16); (2) sermons of judgment against Israel (3-6); and (3) visions of God's judgment (7:1-9:10). The book concludes with a promise of Israel's restoration (9:11-15).

In the first major section of the book Amos begins with biting words of judgment against the six nations surrounding the lands of Judah and Israel. These nations are Damascus (1:3-5), Gaza (1:6-8), Tyre (1:9-10), Edom (1:11-12), Ammon (1:13-15), and Moab (2:1-3). Next he announces God's judgment against Judah, Israel's sister nation to the south (2:4-5). Because of Israel's bitterness toward Judah, Amos' listeners must have greeted this cry of doom with pleasant agreement.

But Amos was only warming up to the main part of his sermon. Suddenly he launched into a vivid description of God's judgment against the nation of Israel. With biting sarcasm, Amos condemned the citizens of Israel for their oppression of the poor (2:7), worship of idols (2:8), rejection of God's salvation (2:9,12), and defilement of the Lord's holy name (2:7). Hypocrisy, greed, and injustice prevailed throughout the land. True worship had been replaced by empty ritualism and dependence on pagan gods. And Amos made it plain that Israel would be judged severely unless the people turned from their sin and looked to the one true God for strength and guidance.

In the second major section of his book (3-6), Amos preached three biting sermons of judgment against the nation of Israel. He referred to the wealthy, luxury-seeking women of Samaria-the capital city of Israel-as "cows of Bashan" (4:1). He also attacked the system of idol worship which King Jeroboam had established in the cities of Bethel and Gilgal (4:4; 5:5).

Following these sermons of judgment, Amos moved on in the third major section of his book (7:1-9:10) to present five visions of God's approaching judgment. The prophet's vision of a basket of fruit is particularly graphic. He described the nation of Israel as a basket of summer fruit, implying that it would soon spoil and rot in the blistering sun of God's judgment (8).

Following these messages of judgment, the Book of Amos ends on a positive, optimistic note. Amos predicted that the people of Israel would be restored to their special place in God's service after their season of judgment had come to an end (9:11-15). This note of hope is characteristic of the Hebrew prophets. They pointed to a glorious future for God's people, even in the midst of dark times. This positive spirit, which issued from Amos' deep faith in God, sustained the prophet and gave him hope for the future.

Authorship and Date.
The author of this book was the prophet Amos, since it is clearly identified in the introduction as "the words of Amos" (1:1). Amos was a humble herdsman, or shepherd, of Tekoa (1:1), a village near Jerusalem in the southern kingdom of Judah. But God called him to deliver His message of judgment to the people who lived in Israel, Judah's sister nation to the north. Amos indicated in his book that he prophesied during the reigns of King Uzziah (Azariah) in Judah and King Jeroboam II in Israel (1:1). This places his prophecy at about 760 BC He must have written the book some time after this date, perhaps after returning to his home in Tekoa.

In one revealing passage in his book, Amos indicates that he was "no prophet, nor was I a son of a prophet, but I was a herdsman and a tender of sycamore fruit" (7:14). In spite of this humble background, he was called by God to preach His message of repentance and judgment to a rebellious nation (7:15-16). His unquestioning obedience and his clear proclamation of God's message show that he was committed to the Lord and His principles of holiness and righteousness. Amos' keen sense of justice and fairness also comes through clearly in the book.

Historical Setting.
Amos prophesied during the reign of Jeroboam II of Israel (793 BC - 753 BC), a time of peace and prosperity. The prophet speaks of the excessive luxury of the wealthy (6:3-7), who had no concern for the needs of the poor. Religiously, the nation had departed from the worship of the one true God. Jeroboam encouraged the practice of fertility cults, mixing an element of BAAL worship with Israel's faith in their Lord of the Covenant. The situation clearly called for a courageous prophet who could call the nation back to authentic faith as well as a policy of fairness and justice in their dealings with their fellow citizens.

Theological Contribution.
Amos is known as the great "prophet of righteousness" of the Old Testament. His book underlines the principle that religion demands righteous behavior. True religion is not a matter of observing all the right feast days, offering burnt offerings, and worshiping at the sanctuary. Authentic worship results in changed behavior-seeking God's will, treating others with justice, and following God's commands. This great insight is summarized by these famous words from the prophet: "Let justice run down like water, and righteousness like a mighty stream" (5:24).

Special Considerations.
Although Amos was a shepherd by occupation, his book gives evidence of careful literary craftsmanship. One technique which he used was puns or plays on words to drive home his message. Unfortunately, they do not translate easily into English. In his vision of the summer fruit, for example, Amos spoke of the coming of God's judgment with a word that sounds very similar to the Hebrew word for fruit (8:1-2). The summer fruit (qayits) suggested the end (qets) of the kingdom of Israel (RSV). Like ripe summer fruit, Israel was ripe for God's judgment.

Another literary device which Amos used in his sermons of judgment against the nations is known as numerical parallelism: "For three transgressions...and for four..." (1:3). He repeated this phrase seven times as he covered the sins of the various nations around Israel (1:3,6,9,11,13; 2:1,4). The reader can almost feel the suspense building until the prophet reaches the dramatic climax of his sermon: "For three transgressions of Israel, and for four, I will not turn away its punishment, because they sell the righteous for silver, and the poor for a pair of sandals" (2:6).

The Book of Amos is one of the most eloquent cries for justice and righteousness to be found in the Bible. And it came through a humble shepherd who dared to deliver God's message to the wealthy and influential people of his day. His message is just as timely for our world, since God still places a higher value on justice and righteousness than on silver and gold and the things that money will buy.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)


DAMASCUS
[duh MASS cuss] -- the oldest continually-inhabited city in the world and capital of Syria (Isa 7:8), located northeast of the Sea of Galilee and Mount Hermon in northern Palestine.

Damascus was situated on the border of the desert at the intersection of some of the most important highways in the ancient Near Eastern world. Three major caravan routes passed through Damascus. Major roads extended from the city to the southwest into Palestine and Egypt, straight south to Edom and the Red Sea, and east to Babylon. Because of its ideal location, the city became a trade center. Its major exports included a patterned cloth called "damask" (Ezek 27:18). Egypt, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, as well as Palestine, were some of the trade neighbors that made Damascus the "heart of Syria."
Damascus owed its prosperity to two rivers, the Abana and the Pharpar (2 Kings 5:12). These rivers provided an abundant source of water for agriculture. The Syrian people were so proud of these streams that Naaman the Syrian leper almost passed up his opportunity to be healed when the prophet Elisha asked him to dip himself in the waters of the Jordan River in Israel. He thought of the Jordan as an inferior stream in comparison with these majestic rivers in his homeland (2 Kings 5:9-14).

History.
The founder of Damascus was Uz, grandson of Shem (Gen 5:32; 6:10; 10:23). The Bible first mentions the city when Abraham traveled from Ur to Canaan, passing through Damascus on the way (Gen 11:31; 12:4). Eliezer, Abraham's faithful servant, was from Damascus (Gen 15:2).

Early Egyptian texts refer to Egypt's control over Damascus, but this influence did not last long. The establishment of Syria (Aram) as a powerful state with Damascus as its capital (1 Kings 11:23-25) took place shortly after David's rule over the United Kingdom of the Hebrew people. David defeated the Syrians and stationed his own troops in Damascus (2 Sam 8:5-6; 1 Chron 18:5-6). During Solomon's reign, however, God allowed Rezon, Solomon's enemy, to take Syria from Israel's control because of Solomon's sins. Rezon founded a powerful dynasty based in Damascus that lasted more than 200 years.

Shortly after Solomon's death, the king of Damascus formed a powerful league with other Aramean states. This alliance resulted in many years of conflict between Israel and Damascus. First, BenHadad of Damascus defeated King Baasha of Israel (1 Kings 15:16-20; 2 Chron 16:1-4). Later, God miraculously delivered King Ahab of Israel and his small army from the superior Syrian forces (1 Kings 20:1-30).

Even after this miraculous deliverance, Ahab made a covenant with Ben-Hadad II against God's will (1 Kings 20:31-43). Ahab was killed a few years later in a battle with Syria (1 Kings 22:29-38).

In the midst of these wars, the prophet Elijah was instructed by God to anoint Hazael as the new king of Damascus (1 Kings 19:15). King Joram of Israel successfully opposed Hazael for a time (2 Kings 13:4-5), but the situation was eventually reversed. Hazael severely oppressed both Israel and Judah during later years (2 Kings 13:3,22).

Much later, God sent Rezon II, king of Syria, and Pekah, king of Israel, against wicked King Ahaz of Judah (2 Kings 16:1-6). Ahaz called on the Assyrians, who had become a powerful military force, for help (2 Kings 16:7). The Assyrian King Tiglath-Pileser responded by conquering Syria, overthrowing the Aramean dynasty, killing Rezon II, and destroying Damascus, just as the prophets Amos and Isaiah had prophesied (Isa 17:1; Amos 1:4-5). This marked the end of Syria as an independent nation. The city of Damascus was also reduced to a fraction of its former glory.

The exact date of the reconstruction of Damascus is unknown, but such an excellent location could not long remain weak and insignificant. Damascus was the residence of Assyrian and Persian governors for five centuries after its conquest by Tiglath-Pileser. Still later, the city was conquered by Alexander the Great, who made it a provincial capital. In 64 BC the Romans invaded Syria, making it a province with Damascus as the seat of government.

All references to Damascus in the New Testament are associated with the apostle Paul's conversion and ministry. During this time, the city was part of the kingdom of Aretas (2 Cor 11:32), an Arabian prince who held his kingdom under the Romans. The New Testament reports that Paul was converted while traveling to Damascus to persecute early Christians who lived in the city (Acts 9:1-8). After his dramatic conversion, Paul went to the house of Judas, where God sent Ananias, a Christian who lived in Damascus, to heal Paul of his blindness (Acts 9:10-22).

Paul preached boldly in the Jewish synagogues in Damascus, but eventually he was forced to flee the city because of the wrath of those to whom he preached. The governor of Damascus tried to capture Paul, but the apostle escaped in a large basket through an opening in the city wall (Acts 9:25; 2 Cor 11:32-33).

Little physical change has taken place in the city of Damascus since biblical times. The long streets are filled with open-air markets that sell the same type of ancient wares. But modern Damascus does show the strong influence of Muslim culture. The most important building in Damascus is the Great Mosque, a Moslem shrine built during the eighth century A.D. on the site of a former Christian church.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)


GAZA
[GAY zuh] (stronghold) - one of the five principle cities of the Philistines (see Map 2, C-1). The southernmost city of Canaan, Gaza was situated on the great caravan route between Mesopotamia and Egypt, at the junction of the trade route from Arabia. This location made Gaza an ideal rest stop and a commercial center for merchants and travelers.

Gaza was originally inhabited by the Avim, a people who were replaced by the Caphtorim (Deut 2:23). Gaza was allotted to the tribe of Judah by Joshua (Josh 15:47); but it was not immediately occupied (Judg 1:18), because the Anakim were still present in the city (Josh 11:22; 13:3). Soon afterwards the Philistines recovered Gaza (Judg 13:1). Here the mighty Samson was humiliated by being forced to grind grain as a blinded prisoner (Judg 16:21). In a final victorious performance, Samson brought down the house of the pagan god Dagon, destroying many Philistines (Judg 16:23-31).

Although Solomon ruled over Gaza, not until the reign of Hezekiah, king of Judah, was the decisive blow dealt to the Philistines (2 Kings 18:8). Through the prophet Amos, God threatened Gaza with destruction by fire for its sins (Amos 1:6-7). This prophecy was fulfilled by the army of Alexander the Great in 332 BC, when Gaza was destroyed and her inhabitants massacred (Zeph 2:4; Zech 9:5).

In the New Testament the evangelist Philip was directed by God to preach the gospel along the road from Jerusalem to Gaza (Acts 8:26). On this road the Ethiopian eunuch professed faith in Jesus and was baptized.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)


TYRE
[tire] (a rock) - an ancient seaport city of the Phoenicians situated north of Palestine (see Map 3, B-1). Tyre was the principal seaport of the Phoenician coast, about 40 kilometers (25 miles) south of Sidon and 56 kilometers (35 miles) north of Carmel. It consisted of two cities: a rocky coastal city on the mainland and a small island city. The island city was just off the shore. The mainland city was on a coastal plain, a strip only 24 kilometers (15 miles) long and 3 kilometers (2 miles) wide.

Behind the plain of Tyre stood the rocky mountains of Lebanon. Tyre was easily defended because it had the sea on the west, the mountains on the east, and several other rocky cliffs (one the famous "Ladder of Tyre") around it, making it difficult to invade.

History.
Tyre was an ancient city. According to one tradition, it was founded about 2750 BC However, SIDON-Tyre's sister city-was probably older (Gen 10:15), perhaps even the mother city (Isa 23:2,12). The Greek poet Homer mentioned "Sidonian wares," without reference to Tyre. This seems to confirm that Sidon was older. About 1400 BC Sidon successfully besieged the city of Tyre and maintained supremacy over it. However, when sea raiders left Sidon in ruins about 1200 BC, many people migrated to Tyre. The increasing greatness of Tyre over Sidon, and its closer location to Israel, caused the order of mentioning Tyre first and then Sidon to be established by biblical writers (Jer 47:4; Mark 3:8).

The period from 1200 to 870 B.C. was largely one of independence for Phoenicia. This enabled Tyre to realize her expansionist dreams. Hiram I, the ruler of Tyre (980 BC - 947 BC), apparently began a colony at Tarshish in Spain. He fortified Tyre's two harbors, one on the north of the city and one on the south. Tyrian ships began to dominate Mediterranean commerce. Their merchants were princes, the honorable of the earth (Isa 23:8). In the ninth century B.C. a colony from Tyre founded the city of Carthage on the north coast of Africa.

The most celebrated product of Tyrian commerce was the famous purple dye made from mollusks found on the shores near Tyre. This dye became a source of great wealth for Tyrians. In addition they produced metal work and glassware, shipping their products to and buying wares from peoples in remote parts of the earth (1 Kings 9:28).

Friendly relations existed between the Hebrews and the Tyrians. Hiram was on excellent terms with both David and Solomon, aiding them with materials for the building of David's palace (1 Kings 5:1; 1 Chron 14:1), Solomon's Temple, and other buildings (1 Kings 4:1; 9:10-14; 2 Chron 2:3,11). Hiram and Solomon engaged in joint commercial ventures (1 Kings 9:26-28).

The dynasty of Hiram came to an end early in the ninth century B.C. when a priest named Ethbaal revolted and assumed the throne. Still, cordial relations between the Tyrians and Israelites continued. Ethbaal's daughter Jezebel married Ahab of Israel (1 Kings 16:31). From this union Baal worship and other idolatrous practices were introduced into Israel.

While the people of Tyre were mostly interested in sea voyages, colonization, manufacturing, and commerce, they were frequently forced into war. Phoenician independence ended with the reign of Ashurnasirpal II (883 BC - 859 BC) of Assyria. More than a century later Shalmaneser IV laid siege to Tyre and it fell to his successor, Sargon. With the decline of Assyria after the middle of the seventh century B.C. Tyre again prospered.

Tyre in Prophecy.
Several prophets of the Old Testament prophesied against Tyre. They condemned the Tyrians for delivering Israelites to the Edomites (Amos 1:9) and for selling them as slaves to the Greeks (Joel 3:5-6). Jeremiah prophesied Tyre's defeat (Jer 27:1-11). But the classic prophecy against Tyre was given by Ezekiel.

Ezekiel prophesied the destruction of Tyre (Ezek 26:3-21). The first stage of this prophecy came true when Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, besieged the mainland city of Tyre for 13 years (585 BC - 572 BC) and apparently destroyed it. However, Nebuchadnezzar had no navy; so he could not flatten the island city. But losing the mainland city was devastating to Tyre. This destroyed Tyre's influence in the world and reduced her commercial activities severely.

The second stage of Ezekiel's prophecy was fulfilled in 332 BC, when Alexander the Great besieged the island city of Tyre for seven months. He finally captured it when he built a causeway from the mainland to the island. Hauling cedars from the mountains of Lebanon, he drove them as piles into the floor of the sea between the mainland and the island. Then he used the debris and timber of the ruined mainland city as solid material for the causeway. Hence, the remarkable prophecy of Ezekiel was completely fulfilled.

Tyre in the New Testament.
During the Roman period Tyre again was rebuilt, eventually achieving a degree of prosperity. A Roman colony was established at the city. Herod I rebuilt the main temple, which would have been standing when Jesus visited the coasts of Tyre and Sidon (Matt 15:21-28; Mark 7:24-31). People of Tyre listened to Jesus as He taught (Mark 3:8; Luke 6:17). The Lord Jesus even cited Tyre as a heathen city that would bear less judgment than the Galilaean towns in which He had invested so much of His ministry (Matt 11:21-22; Luke 10:13-14).

In the New Testament period a Christian community flourished at Tyre. At the close of Paul's third missionary journey he stopped at Tyre and stayed with the believers there for a week (Acts 21:1-7).
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)


EDOM
[EE dum] (red) - the name of a person and a region in the Old Testament:

1. The name given to ESAU after he traded his BIRTHRIGHT to his brother Jacob for a meal, which consisted of a red stew (Gen 25:29-34).

2. The land inhabited by the descendants of Edom, or Esau (Gen 32:3; 36:8). Ancient Edom included the region beginning in the north at the River Zered, a natural boundary also for southern Moab, and extending southward to the Gulf of Aqabah. At times it included mountain ranges and fertile plateaus on the east and west of the Arabah, the Jordan River valley south of the Dead Sea.

The most significant area of ancient Edom was the mountain-encircled plain on the east of the Arabah. Mt. Seir, the highest of this range, rises to an elevation of nearly 1,200 meters (3,500 feet) above the Arabah. Edom's capital during the days of Israel's monarchy was Sela, situated at the southern end of a secluded valley that became the location of the city of PETRA in later times. Other important Edomite cities were Bozrah and Teman (Isa 34:6; Amos 1:12).
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)


MOAB
[MOE abb] (perhaps of my father) - the name of a man and a nation in the Old Testament:

1. A son of Lot by an incestuous union with his older daughter (Gen 19:37). Moab became an ancestor of the MOABITES.

2. A neighboring nation whose history was closely linked to the fortunes of the Hebrew people. Moab was situated along the eastern border of the Dead Sea, on the plateau between the Dead Sea and the Arabian desert. It was about 57 kilometers (35 miles) long and 40 kilometers (25 miles) wide. Although it was primarily a high plateau, Moab also had mountainous areas and deep gorges. It was a fertile area for crops and herds. To the south and west of Moab was the nation of Edom; to the north was Ammon. After the Israelites invaded the land, the tribe of Reuben displaced the Moabites from the northern part of their territory and the tribe of Gad pushed the Ammonites eastward into the desert.

General History.
Moab was inhabited from prehistoric times. The KING'S HIGHWAY, a major trade route from Syria to the Gulf of Aqabah, brought wealth and culture to Moab as early as 2500 BC Some time during the 15 th century B.C., as the nomadic population settled down, the kingdom of Moab arose, along with the other kingdoms east of the Jordan River, such as Edom and Ammon. The Moabites built fortifications throughout their territory, especially on the south and east. Not long before the conquest of the region by the Hebrew people, Sihon, king of the Amorites, invaded Moab from the north and added much of Moab to his kingdom (Num 21:27-30).

The Israelite tribes of Reuben and Gad settled the northern part of the territory of Moab. During most of Israel's history, the Moabites were Israel's enemies. In the late eighth century B.C. Moab became subject to Assyria, like many other nations in the region. When the Assyrian Empire fell in 609 BC, Arab invasions intensified, and the kingdom of Moab was taken. Thereafter Moab was occupied increasingly by nomadic Arabs, until the NABATAEANS established a settled culture from the first century B.C. to A.D. 106 AD. After that, the entire region was made into a Roman province.

Connections with Israel.
Moab, founder of the Moabites, was a son of Lot by incest (Gen 19:30-38). Although the Moabites were of mixed ethnic stock, the influence of Moab's descendants among them was great enough to give the country its ancient name. The story in Gen 14 of the raid of Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, and his fellow kings records the conquest of most of Moab about 2000 BC-1900 BC
Sihon's Amorite kingdom annexed much of Moab shortly before the Israelite conquest of Canaan (Num 21:17-29). After the Israelites defeated Sihon, Balak, the king of the relatively weak Moabites, joined with the Midianites in hiring the prophet-magician Balaam to curse Israel so the Israelites could be defeated (Num 22:1-20). Balaam's mission failed, but when the Israelites camped in Moab just before crossing the Jordan River, the women of Moab enticed the Israelites into a form of idolatry that involved ritual sexual immorality. This resulted in God's judgment against Israel (Num 25:1-9).

Moses saw the Promised Land from Moab's Mount Nebo (Num 27:12-23). Here he was buried after his death (Deut 34:6). From the region of Acacia Grove in northwest Moab, the Israelites crossed the Jordan River into the Promised Land (Josh 3:1). The tribes of Reuben and Gad actually settled in northern Moab (Num 32:1-37).

The nation of Israel was relatively weak during the period of the judges, after the conquest. Eglon, a king of Moab, began to oppress Israel, capturing territory east of the Jordan River as far as Jericho. Ehud the judge delivered Israel from Eglon (Judg 3:12-30). The events of the Book of Ruth occurred during this same general period. Ruth, a Moabite woman, became an ancestor of King David and therefore of Jesus himself (Ruth 2:6; 4:13-22; Matt 1:5-16).

The Moabites also threatened Israel in the days of Israel's first king, Saul, who was apparently successful against them (1 Sam 14:47). Although David had some early friendships among the Moabites (1 Sam 22:3-4), he eventually conquered Moab (2 Sam 8:2). The Moabites remained subject to Israel until after Solomon's death.

Omri, king of Israel (885 BC - 874 BC), kept Moab under his control, as did his son Ahab (874 BC - 853 BC), until Ahab was so occupied with wars against Syria and Assyria that Moab broke free. This was described by King Mesha of Moab in his monument, the MOABITE STONE. King Jehoram of Israel, King Jehoshaphat of Judah, and the king of Edom joined forces to attack Moab about 849 BC But they failed to conquer the Moabites because of a superstitious lack of faith when the king of Moab sacrificed his own son to show how deeply he believed in his cause (2 Kings 3).

On another occasion, a coalition of Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites invaded Judah, but they were destroyed by God (2 Chron 20:1-30). The Moabites apparently raided Israelite territory during the eighth century B.C. (2 Kings 13:20).

The Assyrians conquered Moab about 735 BC and invading Arabs conquered it about 650 BC The prophet Isaiah lamented over Moab's defeat (Isa 15-16), and Jeremiah predicted Moab's death at the end of the seventh century B.C. (Jer 48). When Jerusalem was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 BC, some of the Jews fled to Moab to escape being taken into captivity (Jer 40:11-12).
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)



JUDAH, KINGDOM OF
One of the two nations into which the united kingdom of Israel was divided following King Solomon's death in 922 BC (see Map 4, B-5). Judah consisted mostly of the tribes of Judah and part of Benjamin, although Simeon apparently was included later. The kingdom extended in the north as far as Bethel, while in the south it ended in the dry area known as the NEGEV. The Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea formed the kingdom's eastern and western boundaries respectively. Jerusalem was its capital.

Judah was left suddenly independent when Rehoboam flatly refused to lighten the heavy load of forced labor and high taxation imposed on the Israelites by his father Solomon (1 Kings 12:1-24). Upon Rehoboam's refusal, the ten tribes living north of Bethel promptly declared their independence. Under the leadership of Jeroboam, who once had been an overseer for Solomon, they followed their own way of life. Israel soon slipped into idolatry; and when the sensuous and depraved religion of the Phoenicians was introduced, this idolatry became increasingly worse.

Scarcely had this division occurred when a new and entirely unexpected blow devastated Judah. Shishak, Pharaoh of Egypt (about 945 BC - 924 BC), invaded the country, plundered the treasures of the Temple and the royal palace, and destroyed a number of newly built fortresses (2 Chron 12:1-12). A damaged monument of Shishak recovered from MEGIDDO shows the extent of this conquest.

Judah never recovered from the sudden loss of her national wealth. Because her land was not as fertile as that of the northern kingdom of Israel, Judah never enjoyed the same degree of prosperity.

Rehoboam wanted to attack Israel and reunite the kingdom by force, but Shemaiah the prophet showed him how foolish the attempt would be (1 Kings 12:21-24). Rehoboam's son Abijah (about 913 BC - 910 BC) regained a small area from Israel and tried to make an alliance with Syria against the Northern Kingdom, as did his successor Asa (about 910 BC - 869 BC). Asa rooted out much of the Canaanite paganism in Judah, and his reign was mostly peaceful and prosperous. He was followed (about 869 BC) by Jehoshaphat, who had co-ruled with Asa from about 873 BC.

Judah prospered under the rule of Jehoshaphat, although he failed in his attempts to revive Solomon's seagoing trade. An alliance with Ahab of Israel against the Syrians at Ramoth Gilead proved to be even more disastrous (2 Chron 18:31-32). Jehoshaphat's son Jehoram (about 848 BC - 841 BC) married Athaliah, daughter of Ahab and the wicked Queen Jezebel; and their marriage led to Baal worship also being established in Jerusalem (2 Kings 8:18). Jehoram's son Ahaziah reigned only for one year (841 BC) before he was killed. The pagan queen-mother Athaliah (about 841 BC - 835 BC) seized the throne and nearly brought the Davidic line to extinction by killing most of Ahaziah's sons. Only the infant Joash escaped; he was rescued by his aunt Jehoshabeath and her husband Jehoiada, the godly high priest (2 Chron 22:10-12).

After six years Joash was proclaimed the lawful king, and Athaliah was executed. The new king reigned well (about 835 BC - 796 BC) whenever he followed Jehoiada's advice. But following the death of the high priest, idolatry crept back into the nation's life. Joash was finally assassinated by his servants following a raid on Jerusalem by the army of Syria, which pillaged the city (2 Chron 24:23-25).

Judah enjoyed modest prosperity under Amaziah (about 796 BC - 767 BC), the son and successor of Joash. Amaziah regained control of Edom, which had been independent since the days of Jehoram. Thus he was able to control the trading caravans of western Arabia as Solomon had done. With his victories, Amaziah became overconfident and he began worshiping the pagan gods of the Edomites instead of honoring the God of Sinai. Amaziah suffered a severe setback when he fought with Joash, king of Israel (about 798 BC - 781 BC), and was captured. His release came only after he had permitted Jerusalem's walls to be destroyed and the city's treasure to be removed. Consequently, Judah found it even more difficult to defend itself against Israel than in the days of Rehoboam. Amaziah was murdered at Lachish as the result of a conspiracy (2 Kings 14:19), and he was succeeded by Azariah (Uzziah) about 767 BC.

Uzziah had co-ruled with Amaziah from about 791 BC, and he immediately set about restoring Judah's military and economic strength. He suppressed Baal worship in the kingdom and promoted the traditions of the Sinai covenant. He improved agricultural productivity by constructing cisterns, which increased available water supplies. Uzziah incorporated some Philistine and Ammonite territory into his own realm; he also built new defensive positions in Jerusalem and at the outposts on the borders of Judah. Uzziah became proud with his successes, which led him to take over the duties of the high priest (2 Kings 15:5). For this he was struck with leprosy for the rest of his life.

Jotham succeeded his father Uzziah and continued to make the Southern Kingdom productive. His successor, Ahaz (about 732 BC - 715 BC), was faced with Assyria's rise to power under TiglathPileser III; but Ahaz resisted the urgings of Rezin of Syria and Pekah of Israel to join an alliance against Assyria. Instead, Ahaz sought help from Assyria, against Isaiah's advice, and received assistance in return for heavy tribute. Syria and the kingdom of Israel were destroyed, leaving Judah at the mercy of the Assyrians.

When Hezekiah (about 714 BC - 686 BC) succeeded Ahaz, he also disregarded Isaiah's advice and became involved in a coalition with Babylonia and Egypt against Assyria. Assyria, now ruled by Sennacherib (about 705 BC - 681 BC), moved against Jerusalem in 701 BC It was at this time that Hezekiah constructed the SILOAM Tunnel to bring water from the Spring of GIHON into the city of Jerusalem (2 Chron 32:30).

The Assyrians soon withdrew after suffering heavy losses, perhaps from a plague (Isa 37:36). The rest of Hezekiah's reign was marked by a renewal of covenant faith. Hezekiah's renewal was disrupted by his son Manasseh (about 687 BC - 641 BC), who reacted violently against his father's religious policies. Manasseh introduced a lengthy period of paganism that brought Judah to new depths of depravity (2 Chron 33:1-20). He was deported to Babylon by Esarhaddon (about 681 BC - 669 BC) and later was allowed to return home. He then began a religious reformation, but with poor results.

Manasseh's son Amon (about 642 BC - 639 BC) continued in his father's depravity, but he soon was murdered. His successor Josiah (about 640 BC - 609 BC) restored traditional covenant religion, which was based on the Book of the Law newly discovered in a Temple storeroom (2 Chron 34:14). Many did not follow Josiah's example, however, and the prophet ZEPHANIAH foretold disaster for the nation.

By 610 BC the Assyrian Empire had collapsed under Babylonian attacks, and the victors prepared to march against Egypt, which had been helping the Assyrians. Against Jeremiah's advice, Josiah intervened and was killed at Megiddo (2 Chron 35:20-27). Pharaoh Necho deposed Jehoahaz (Shallum) in 609 BC and made Jehoiakim ruler of Judah, which was now firmly under Egyptian control. The Babylonians swept down upon Jerusalem in 597 BC and captured it. A second attack led to Jerusalem's second defeat in 586 BC Captives from both campaigns were taken to Babylonia to mark the captivity of the Southern Kingdom.

The Babylonians appointed Gedaliah, a court official in Judah, to oversee what was left of life in the land. After three years as governor, he was assassinated. Judah's kingdom reaped the reward of its idolatry and rebellion against the Lord and disappeared from history.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)


ISRAEL, HISTORY OF
The ancient Hebrews were just one of a number of nations living in the ancient Near East. This region of the world included ancient Persia, Mesopotamia (the area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers), Syria, Anatolia, Palestine, and Egypt. Each of the nations in the area experienced at least one period in its history when it was more powerful or influential than its neighbors. But the nature of empires is such that all of them were destined to fall and to be replaced by a society that was more aggressive than those it overthrew.

The first of these great empires was that of the SUMERIANS. It consisted of about a dozen small city-states located in southern Mesopotamia in an area about 245 kilometers (150 miles) northwest of the Persian Gulf. The Sumerians established the first high culture in human society about 4000 BC They made fundamental discoveries in many important areas of life. They were at their height when a person named Sargon founded an aggressive culture at Agade, some 128 kilometers (80 miles) northwest in central Mesopotamia, adopting much of the Sumerian culture.

Sargon's dynasty was overthrown ultimately by a nation that was itself conquered after a century of rule by a powerful Babylonian king named HAMMURABI (about 1790 BC - 1750 BC). During Hammurabi's reign, the Sumerian cities were conquered and a large Semitic empire was established in Mesopotamia.

Abraham and the Patriarchs.
It is difficult to assign an exact beginning to Hebrew history. But if we regard ABRAHAM as the forefather of the Israelites, it is clear that they had their roots in ancient Sumer. Abraham came from Ur, a Sumerian city (Gen 11:31). Abraham became prosperous in HARAN in northwestern Mesopotamia, then later moved to the land of Canaan (Gen 12:5), where he received God's assurance that he would be the ancestor of a mighty people.

Abraham's promised son ISAAC had two sons of his own, ESAU and JACOB. God chose Jacob for the renewal of His promise to Abraham (Gen 28:13-15). Jacob later moved from Haran, where he had married LEAH and RACHEL, daughters of LABAN, and settled in Canaan. Jacob, whose name was changed to ISRAEL after an encounter with God (Gen 32:24-30), had 12 sons. Eleven of these sons plotted to sell their youngest brother Joseph into slavery in Egypt.

Years in Egypt.
When God prospered Joseph and made him a high official in Egypt, the brothers were forgiven, after being humiliated. They were instructed to bring their father and other family members to Egypt, where they settled in the fertile GOSHEN area for over two centuries. Then a Pharaoh who did not acknowledge Joseph's achievements came to power. The descendants of Israel, now known as HEBREWS or Israelites, were uprooted from their land and forced to work on the rebuilding of great Egyptian cities.

After the Israelites experienced considerable suffering, God appointed Moses to liberate His people from bondage. Moses had been born to Hebrew slaves. He was set adrift in a basket on the Nile River in an attempt to prevent him from being killed by Pharaoh's troops. An Egyptian princess rescued him and brought him up as her own son.

Fleeing later from Egypt because of a crime that he had committed (Ex 2:12), Moses experienced a divine revelation in the wilderness. He was ordered by God to return to Egypt where, with AARON his brother, he would confront Pharaoh and demand the release of the captive Israelites. Pharaoh's stubborn refusal finally resulted in the death of the Egyptian firstborn, after which Moses led the Israelites across the Red Sea to safety in the Sinai region.

The Covenant at Sinai.
God appeared to Moses on Mount Sinai (Horeb) and entered into a relationship with the twelve tribes, which bound them to Himself and made them, in effect, the nation of Israel. The relationship was in the form of a COVENANT, or a written contract.
This covenant is fundamentally important for Israelite history. Through it a number of independent tribes were bonded together into one Hebrew nation and given a specific destiny as the people chosen by God as a channel for divine revelation. The Israelites, however, were not to behave just like any nation of the ancient world. All of these were pagan, following depraved and corrupt moral practices as part of their worship.

The Israelites were to live as a religious community in which each member cared for the others. The exploitation of such helpless persons as strangers, widows, and orphans was strictly forbidden under the Mosaic Law (Deut 24:17), since God Himself was their champion (Deut 10:18).

God promised to provide a land for the Hebrews in which they could settle in obedience to covenant law as a holy nation (Ex 19:6), and be witnesses of His existence and power to all the neighboring nations.

Throughout their history, God's covenant people were meant to be an example of spirituality to the world. This, rather than political activity or territorial conquest, was to be their true destiny. Unfortunately, much of Israelite history was marked by periodic disobedience of the covenant laws.

Israelite history began badly with an idolatrous act. The people made and worshiped a golden calf while Moses was still on Mount Sinai (Ex 32:1-6). After their punishment, the covenant was renewed and work began on the building of the TABERNACLE. The structure was portable, and it moved with the Israelites whenever they wandered in the wilderness. Subsequent Hebrew temples were to reflect something of its structure.

The Wilderness Years.
Because the Israelites disobeyed God by refusing to enter Canaan (Num 14:30-35), they were compelled to wander for a generation in the wilderness. These aimless wanderings are summarized in Num 33. The people apparently moved between various oases in the Sinai wilderness. After Aaron's death (Num 20:22-29), the Israelites moved steadily toward Moab in TRANSJORDAN and prepared to conquer Canaan. The tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half of the tribe of Manasseh, who owned large herds, were allowed to settle in the conquered Transjordan lands and to raise their cattle. The remainder of the Israelites prepared to cross the Jordan River at Jericho and occupy the Promised Land. Moses was not permitted to lead the Israelites to victory because he had not carried out God's will properly (Deut 32:51). Instead he was allowed to view Canaan from the summit of Mount Nebo. After this, he died and was buried in Moab (Deut 34:6).

Conquest of Canaan.
Jericho was like a town under siege when JOSHUA, who had been commissioned as leader shortly before Moses died (Deut 34:9), advanced to overthrow it. He obeyed God's instructions regarding the attack upon the fortresslike city that guarded the entrance to Canaan. The Hebrews marched around it daily for six days, and it collapsed dramatically on the seventh day (Josh 6:12-20).

The next assault was on nearby Ai. This offensive, however, met with disaster because an Israelite named Achan had defied God's instructions about not taking plunder from Jericho. When his sin was discovered, he and his family were stoned to death (Josh 7:25), after which Ai was overthrown.

Shortly afterwards, Joshua was tricked into sealing a covenant with the neighboring GIBEONITES. This was followed by a defense of the royal city of Gibeon against the attack of five Canaanite kings who resented the pact made with Joshua. The kings were captured and executed (Josh 10:16-27). Then Joshua proceeded to conquer the southland, where Lachish and Hebron were important cities. JERUSALEM, however, was not captured at this time, nor was Megiddo in central Palestine.
The final phase of occupation involved northern Palestine, where Joshua was confronted by a military group led by Jabin, king of Hazor. Perhaps because the Israelites were anxious to keep the cities intact, none were destroyed except Hazor, the chief city of the north. This policy proved costly in later years. Although the Israelites had occupied the Promised Land, they had not conquered the people completely. Once the Canaanites were able to reestablish themselves, they presented serious problems for the Israelites.

Period of the Judges.
After Joshua died, individual charismatic leaders known as judges provided leadership for the Hebrew nation. This event coincided with increasingly independent activity by the Israelite tribes, caused partly because of Canaanite resistance to the conquerors. This lack of centralized leadership meant that covenant law was not being observed, and it was being replaced by idolatry.

Although the judges tried hard to correct local problems, they were no match for the increasingly militant Canaanites, or for Eglon, a Moabite ruler who oppressed some of the Hebrew people for 18 years before being killed by a left-handed judge named Ehud (Judg 3:15-30). By this time Hazor had been reoccupied by Canaanites under Jabin, their king, who made several northern tribes his subjects for 20 years (Judg 4:2-3).

Jabin's forces were superior because they had iron-fitted, horse-drawn chariots. These chariots were effective on level ground, but they proved less threatening in the hill country. Jabin's general Sisera was defeated by the Hebrew commander Barak and slain by Jael, the wife of an ally named Heber (Judg 4:21).

The Book of Judges shows clearly that Israel's troubles were the result of rejecting covenant law and adopting various forms of Canaanite idolatry. Canaanite religion was one of the most sensuous and morally depraved that the world has ever known; it contrasted dramatically with the holiness and moral purity demanded of the Israelites by the Sinai covenant.

Because of their persistent idolatry, the Hebrews were punished further by Midianite and Ammonite attacks. The most serious threat, however, came from the PHILISTINES. These war-like people had migrated to Canaan in small numbers in the time of Abraham. But they came in a body about 1175 BC and settled on the southwestern Palestinian coast. The Philistines established a group of five cities-Gaza, Gath, Ashkelon, Ashdod, and Ekron-and began to push the Israelites into the hill country.

The Philistines were superior in military power because they monopolized the manufacture and sale of iron implements and weapons. SAMSON had delivered the Israelites periodically from Philistine oppression, but after his death (Judg 16:27-30) they were at the mercy of the enemy once more.

The United Kingdom Years.
The social chaos described in the closing chapters of the Book of Judges came to a head in the religious corruption in Israel at the time of SAMUEL's childhood (1 Sam 2:12-18,22). Although Samuel himself exercised a wholesome ministry, the Israelites were more intent on being ruled by a king than in living as a holy nation in covenant with their God (1 Sam 8:19-20). SAUL, son of Kish, was duly anointed by Samuel as a charismatic leader over the nation (1 Sam 10:1).

But Saul had an unbalanced personality, which soon showed signs of paranoia. He disobeyed God's commands (1 Sam 13:13), and a successor was chosen and anointed in the person of DAVID, son of Jesse. David gained popular favor by his defeat of the Philistine champion Goliath. Thereafter David was seen as Israel's savior, much to the dislike of Saul, who felt his own position threatened. Saul fought at intervals against both David and the Philistines, but was ultimately killed along with five sons at Mount Gilboa. The northern tribes then looked to Ishbosheth, the surviving son of Saul, who was made king at Mahanaim in Transjordan by Abner, his father's commander (2 Sam 2:8-10).

David settled in Hebron (2 Sam 2:11), and Abner tried to gain favor with him. But Abner was murdered by Joab, David's commander, at Hebron (2 Sam 3:27). When Ishbosheth was also murdered (2 Sam 4:5-6), the way was clear for David to assume sole rule of Israel and unify the kingdom. He established his capital at Jerusalem, which he captured from the Jebusites. He also brought the ARK OF THE COVENANT to the city, making it a religious as well as a political center.
For the remainder of his reign, David fought against the Ammonites and Syrians as well as the Philistines. His later years were clouded by family dissension and by a revolt among some of his subjects. In spite of his troubles, he behaved with great courage and managed to overcome all his enemies. Before his death, he proclaimed his son Solomon as his successor. Solomon was duly anointed at Gihon by Zadok the priest (1 Kings 1:39).

Solomon became renowned for his wisdom. He brought the kingdom of Israel to great prominence at a time when other Near Eastern nations were weak politically. He renewed the alliance that David had made with Hiram, king of Tyre, engaging Hiram's workmen to construct a TEMPLE complex in Jerusalem. Although the finished building had some of the characteristics of the wilderness tabernacle, it also included some pagan features. These included the freestanding columns found in Syrian shrines, while certain aspects of the internal decoration reflected Canaanite religious symbolism.

The cost of Solomon's ambitious building projects in and around Jerusalem was high. Much of the agricultural productivity of the land was sent to Phoenicia to pay for materials and workmen's wages. Although Solomon levied tolls on the caravan trade that passed through his kingdom, he could not meet the rising costs that an increasingly lavish way of life involved. He attempted to replenish his depleted resources by increasing productivity in the mining industry of the Arabah and by building a fleet of ships near Elath for trading purposes (1 Kings 9:26).

In desperation, Solomon finally began a program of forced labor which involved 30,000 men working by rotation (10,000 working every third month), laboring in the forests, mines, and cities under harsh conditions.

Rebellion of the Northern Tribes.
As he grew older, Solomon entered into political marriages with non-lsraelites. These women brought with them the gods of their native lands (1 Kings 11:7-8), adding to the problem of idolatry in Israel. Before Solomon died, he managed to antagonize almost all his subjects. When he was succeeded by his son Rehoboam, the ten northern tribes led by Jeroboam, a former head of the forced labor units, met with him and sought relief from the burdens of work and taxation.

Rehoboam followed bad advice and refused. The northern tribes declared independence and formed a separate kingdom with Jeroboam as head. They named their kingdom "Israel" (this sometimes causes confusion because the name is also used for the remnant of the Covenant People at a later time). The southern section of the divided kingdom was known as Judah. It soon attracted the attention of Shishak, pharaoh of Egypt (about 945 BC - 924 BC), who moved into Judah, robbed the Temple of its golden objects, and destroyed a number of Judah's fortresses. This event weakened still further an already vulnerable people.

Threat From Syria.
Israel's troubles had also begun. The Arameans of Damascus were becoming powerful in Syria and were beginning to put pressure on Israel's northern borders. There was internal instability in the kingdom as well, indicated by the murder of King Nadab (about 908 BC), two years after his father Jeroboam's death. His murderer, Baasha, fortified a site close to Jerusalem (1 Kings 15:17). Asa, the king of Judah (about 911 BC - 870 BC), appealed to the Syrians for help against Baasha. Baasha's son Elah reigned for two years (about 886 BC - 884 BC); Elah was murdered by Zimri, who committed suicide after seven days and plunged the nation into civil war.

Four years later the army general Omri gained control of Israel and began his own dynasty. Omri moved Israel's capital from Tirzah to Samaria, which he fortified strongly. He allied with Phoenicia, and arranged a marriage between his son Ahab and Jezebel, a princess of Tyre. When Ahab (about 874 BC - 853 BC) became king, he continued Omri's policy of resistance to Syria. But his support of pagan Tyrian religion in Israel drew strong criticism from the prophet Elijah (1 Kings 18:18). The nation was punished by famine, but this did little to halt the widespread spiritual and social corruption.

About 855 BC the Syrian Ben-Hadad attacked Samaria (1 Kings 20:1) but suffered heavy losses, as he also did the following year at Aphek. Israel was saved by the appearance of the powerful Assyrian forces who, under Shalmaneser III (about 859 BC - 824 BC), attacked allied Syrian and Israelite forces in 853 BC at Qarqar on the Orontes River. The Assyrians were defeated decisively, but the victorious allies soon quarreled, and Ahab died while trying to recover Ramoth Gilead from Syrian control. Meanwhile Mesha, king of Moab, had refused to pay further tribute to Israel; consequently, he was attacked by Ahaziah (about 853 BC - 852 BC), Ahab's successor.

Jehoram (about 852 BC - 841 BC) of Israel enlisted Jehoshaphat of Judah (about 873 BC - 848 BC) in the struggle against Moab, which proved successful (2 Kings 3) as Elisha the prophet had predicted. About 843 BC Ben-Hadad was murdered by Hazel (2 Kings 8:7-13); and two years later Jehu seized the throne of Israel, carrying out a vicious purge of Ahab's house and suppressing pagan religions.

At the same time, Athaliah, queen of Judah, exterminated the royal house except for Jehoash, who was proclaimed king six years later. Jehoash first banned idolatry, but then became attracted to it and subsequently killed the son of the high priest who had protected him earlier. In 841 BC Shalmaneser III again attacked a Syrian coalition. But Jehu wished to avoid fighting the Assyrians, so he paid heavy tribute to this powerful nation instead.

Prosperity and the Prophets.
For both Israel and Judah the eighth century B.C. was marked by a period of prosperity. Jeroboam II (about 782 BC - 752 BC) was able to develop agriculture, trade, and commerce because the westward advance of Assyria compelled the Syrian armies to defend their eastern territories. In Judah, Uzziah (790 BC - 740 BC) raised the prosperity of the country to levels unknown since the time of David. In both nations there was a sense that the true "golden age" had arrived.

Unfortunately, however, idolatry and the rejection of covenant spirituality were prominent, especially in Israel. Prophets such as Amos, Hosea, Micah, and Isaiah spoke out against these abuses. They condemned the exploitation of the poor. They also rebuked the rich for accumulating land and wealth illegally, and for forsaking the simple Hebrew way of life for the luxurious living of pagan nations.

Fall of the Northern Kingdom.
The end of all this for Israel occurred shortly after Jeroboam's death. The kingship was left to political opportunists. But they were dwarfed by the powerful Assyrian monarch Tiglath-Pileser III. About 745 BC he placed Menahem of Israel (752 BC - 741 BC) under tribute. But when Menahem died, Israel joined an alliance against Assyria.

Ahaz of Judah, alarmed by this move, appealed to Tiglath-Pileser for help. Tiglath-Pileser overthrew Damascus in 732 BC (Isa 8:4; 17:1; Amos 1:4). He then carried people from the territory of Naphtali captive to Assyria (2 Kings 15:29). But he still had to reckon with the resistance from Samaria under Pekah, whose murderer, Hoshea, was later made an Assyrian vassal.

On Tiglath-Pileser's death (727 BC), Hoshea of Israel rebelled. This brought the Assyrians to Samaria in a siege that ended three years later with the fall of Israel and the deportation of more northern tribesmen in 722 BC Isaiah's prediction that God would use Assyria as the rod of His anger upon Israel (Isa 10:5-6) had been fulfilled.

Fall of the Southern Kingdom.
The Southern Kingdom under the godly Hezekiah (716 BC - 686 BC), son and successor of Jehoahaz I, prospered for a time. This was possible because Hezekiah took advantage of a developing power struggle between Assyria and Egypt to fortify Judah and build up its resources. Some 20 years after Samaria fell, Sennacherib, who succeeded Sargon, invaded Palestine and reduced the cities of Joppa, Ashkelon, Timnath, and Ekron in quick succession. An Egyptian army sent to relieve Ekron was defeated about 701 BC, and the frontier fortress of Lachish came under heavy assault.

The Assyrians also threatened Jerusalem. To gain relief, Hezekiah offered to pay tribute to Sennacherib. In the end the Assyrians withdrew from Palestine, perhaps as the result of being devastated by a plague (2 Kings 19:35). Hezekiah's successor Manasseh (about 687 BC - 641 BC) encouraged idolatry and depravity in Judah, but he reformed toward the end of his life (2 Chron 33:10-17).

Manasseh's grandson Josiah reigned until 609 BC He finally died at Megiddo while trying to prevent the Egyptians from helping the tottering Assyrian Empire. Assyria collapsed with the fall of Nineveh (612 BC) and Haran (610 BC) to Babylonian and Median forces. Later the Babylonians turned against Jerusalem. In the days of the prophet Jeremiah, they devastated the city in three assaults between 597 and 581 B.C.

The Captivity Years.
With the removal of prisoners to Babylonia (Jer 52:28-30), the Southern Kingdom collapsed and the shock of captivity began for the Hebrew people. The prophets Ezekiel and Daniel ministered in various ways to the distraught captives. For almost seven decades the Jewish people were occupied in building the Babylonian Empire under Nebuchadnezzar II (605 BC - 562 BC) and Nabonidus (556 BC - 539 BC). In this alien environment some Hebrew captives lost all hope for the future. But through a ministry of prayer, study of the law, memorial observances, worship, and personal testimony to God's power, Ezekiel was able to promote trust in divine mercy. He kept alive the hope that some day a faithful remnant would return to the ancestral homeland.

Return from Captivity.
Magnificent as the Babylonian Empire appeared, it was fundamentally weak. It collapsed under the attack of the Persian ruler Cyrus II. Babylon fell in 538 BC, and the same year Cyrus proclaimed liberty to all captives in Babylonia. The Hebrew remnant that longed to return home was able to do so between 536 and 525 B.C.

The returnees, however, found a desolate land claimed by Arab tribes and the Samaritans. They had to be urged by HAGGAI and ZECHARIAH to reconstruct the ruined Temple before they could expect divine blessing (Hag. 1:9-11). Even after this had been done, life was still insecure because Jerusalem lacked a defensive wall.

In 458 BC EZRA came from Persia as a royal commissioner to survey the situation and report to King Artaxerxes I (464 BC - 423 BC). Twelve years passed before action was taken, due to the initiative of NEHEMIAH, a high court official, who in 446 BC was appointed governor of Judea. As a preliminary step toward restoring regional security and prosperity, he supervised the reconstruction of Jerusalem's wall in the short period of 52 days, after which it was dedicated (Neh 12:27).

Then Ezra led a ceremony of national confession and commitment to covenant ideals. He also instituted religious reforms which made the law central in community life, as well as reviving tithe-offerings and stressing Sabbath worship. He expelled non-lsraelites from the community, regulated the priesthood carefully, and in general laid the foundations of later Judaism.

The Period of Greek Dominance.
The restoration of the national life of the Jewish people was achieved quickly because of the peaceful conditions in the Persian Empire. But this phase ended with revolts under Artaxerxes II (404 BC - 359 BC) and the defeat of Darius III in 331 BC by ALEXANDER the Great of Greece. Thereafter Greek culture became firmly established in the ancient world, in spite of the premature death of Alexander in 323 BC.

The small Judean community, which had faced extinction before because of Canaanite paganism, now reacted with fear lest it should become engulfed by the idolatry of Greek religion. The adoption of Greek traditions transformed the old Persian Empire. When Egypt became hellenized, the culture of Greece was represented strongly in cities such as ALEXANDRIA.
The chief threat to the Jewish community was not so much military or political as religious. Greek religion was coarse and superstitious, and its sensuous nature encouraged a wide following. The philosophy of Stoicism attracted some adherents because of its fatalism and the view that God was in everything, while a less rigorous view of life was taught by Epicurus (341 BC - 270 BC). He stressed the values of friendship, advising his followers to avoid sensual excesses if they wished to enjoy true pleasure.

By contrast, emphasis upon the teachings of the Jewish law became the hallmark of the SCRIBES, who had replaced the wise men as guardians of Jewish religious tradition. About the second century B.C., they were aided by the rise of a separatist or PHARISEE group, which taught scrupulous observance of the Mosaic Law, advocated synagogue worship, and professed belief in angels, demons, and the resurrection of the dead.

Another influential religious group during this period of Jewish history was the SADDUCEES, an aristocratic priestly minority that exercised close control over Temple ritual. The Sadducees accepted only the Law as Scripture. They would not allow any doctrine that could not be proved directly from the Law. This brought them into conflict with the Pharisees.

Revolt of the Maccabees.
The political conflict in Palestine became critical under the Syrian ruler Antiochus IV Epiphanes (175 BC - 163 BC), who was determined to force Greek culture upon the Jewish community. Greek fashions were imposed upon Jerusalem. This provoked such unrest that Antiochus deliberately polluted the Temple in 168 BC and forbade traditional Jewish worship. A Jewish family near Jerusalem rebelled against Greek authority. Its leader, Mattathias, began what is known as the Maccabean revolt. This continued under his son, Judas Maccabeus, who finally won concessions from the Syrian regent Lysias.

Even after the Maccabean war ended, Greek culture exerted a considerable influence in Judea. The province came under Roman rule after 64 BC with the rise of the Roman Empire, but this did little to stop the threat presented by Greek religion. In spite of all adversity, the faithful remnant of God's people, Israel, struggled on in hope, looking for the long-promised Messiah who would deliver them from their enemies and bring God's kingdom upon earth.

Jesus and His Ministry.
More than 600 years after the prophet Micah had foretold the birthplace of the Messiah (Mic 5:2), the birth of a baby was announced by an angel to astonished shepherds in Bethlehem. The child was Jesus, God's Messiah (Anointed One), who would ultimately die for the sin of the world.

Jesus carried out a ministry of teaching, preaching, and healing for about three years. He came increasingly under suspicion by the Jewish authorities in Jerusalem. His work won for Him widespread acceptance, but He refused to allow His mission of salvation to be set aside in favor of following popular messianic expectations.

When Jesus condemned Jewish legalism (Mark 7:1-23), the Sadducees and Pharisees rose up in anger. The local Roman ruler Herod Antipas was also becoming concerned about Christ's activities (Luke 13:31). Matters came to a head when He was betrayed to the priests by one of His disciples. The Roman authorities took part in His trial and death, but even His disciples were unprepared for His dramatic resurrection on the first Easter morning.

After 40 days Jesus returned to heaven, leaving His disciples with an evangelistic commission (Matt 28:18-20) which received a powerful impetus at the feast of Pentecost (Acts 2:1-4). The Christian church which came into being on this day spread across Palestine into Europe and ultimately throughout the world. At the forefront of evangelistic activity was a converted Jew, Paul of Tarsus, whose writings form a large part of the New Testament.

In Palestine, Pontius Pilate was removed from office just before Tiberius died in A.D. 37 AD. Seven years later Herod Agrippa died. In the Roman Empire, Caligula followed Tiberius. Four years later he was succeeded by Claudius. During Paul's missionary journeys, Jews were expelled from Rome (about A.D. 49 AD). About A.D. 52 AD Felix was made procurator of Judea. Seven years later he was succeeded by Porcius Festus, before whom Paul appeared (Acts 25:1-12).

There were threats of persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire, and these became a reality under Nero. He blamed a disastrous fire in Rome (A.D. 64) upon them to divert suspicion from himself. In A.D. 66 AD the first revolt against Roman power occurred in Judea. Four years later the Roman emperor Titus marched into Jerusalem, destroyed it, and brought the Jewish state to an end. Thereafter the Jews became a religious group that was scattered across Europe and Asia, while God's message of redemption and salvation was committed to the Christian church.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary, Copyright (c)1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)