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Our
FATHER, YHVH, has foretold all things unto HIS servants.
Eccl 1:9-11
9 The thing that hath been, it is that which shall be; and that which is
done is
that which shall be done: and there is no new thing under the sun.
10 Is there any thing whereof it may be said, See, this is new? it hath
been
already of old time, which was before us.
11 There is no remembrance of former things; neither shall there be any
remembrance of things that are to come with those that shall come after.
(KJV)
HE has foretold those things which shall occur in the "seven
thunders"
by
providing us with 'types' and 'examples', such as was shown in the Book of
Nahum.
-----------------
Before we can begin in the scriptures, it is necessary for us to
understand
certain things.
-----------------
NINEVEH
[NIN eh vuh]-- ancient capital city of the Assyrian Empire, a place
associated
with the ministry of the prophet Jonah. The residents of this pagan city
repented and turned to God after Jonah's preaching of a clear message of
God's judgment <Jon. 3:5-10>.
Founded by Nimrod <Gen. 10:8-10>, Nineveh was the capital of the
great
Assyrian Empire for many years. Its fortunes rose and fell as Babylonia
and
Assyria struggled with each other for the dominant position in the ancient
world. During some periods Babylonia was stronger, while the Assyrians
gained the upper hand at other times.
In 612 B. C. Nineveh was destroyed, as prophesied by the Hebrew prophets,
especially Nahum. Many scholars questioned the existence of Nineveh until
its discovery by A. H. Layard and H. Rassam in 1845-1854. The site has now
been excavated thoroughly. Occupational levels on the site go back to
prehistoric times, before 3100 B. C. Some of the pottery indicates the
city
may have originated with the SUMERIANS.
One of the exciting discoveries in this excavation was the great palace of
the Assyrian King Sargon. Along with this find was a library of CUNEIFORM
documents and many striking wall ornamentations. This clear evidence of
Sargon's existence verifies the accuracy of the Book of Isaiah in the
prophet's mention of this pagan king <Is. 20:1>.
The wall around the city indicated that Nineveh was about two kilometers
(three miles) long and less than half that distance wide. The Hebrews,
however, perhaps like other foreigners, included other cities under the
name
of Nineveh. An example from today would be our reference to New York,
which is actually made up of a complex of many cities. Cities included in
references to Nineveh were Calah, Resen, and Rehoboth-Ir.
At the time of the greatest prosperity of Nineveh as described by Jonah,
the
city was surrounded by a circuit wall almost 13 kilometers (eight miles)
long.
This "great city" <Jon. 1:2> would have had an area
sufficient to contain a
population of 120,000, as indicated by <Jonah 4:11> and <3:2>.
Evidence for
this is provided by Calah to the south, where 69,754 persons lived in a
city
half the size of Nineveh. As a result, it would have required a
"three day's
journey" to go around the city, and a "day's journey" would
have been
needed to reach the city center from the outlying suburbs, just as the
Book
of Jonah reports <Jon. 3:4>.
Several centuries before Jonah's preaching mission to the city, Nineveh
became one of the royal residences of Assyrian kings. Sennacherib (705-681
B. C.) made it the capital of the Assyrian Empire to offset the rival
capital of
Dur-Sharrukin (Khorsabad), built by his father Sargon II (722-705 B. C.).
He
greatly beautified and adorned Nineveh. The splendid temples, palaces, and
fortifications made it the chief city of the Empire <2 Kin. 19:36>.
In Sennacherib's day the wall around Nineveh was 40 to 50 feet high. It
extended for 4 kilometers (2 1/2 miles) along the Tigris River and for 13
kilometers (8 miles) around the inner city. The city wall had 15 main
gates, 5
of which have been excavated. Each of the gates was guarded by stone bull
statues. Both inside and outside the walls, Sennacherib created parks, a
botanical garden, and a zoo. He built a water-system containing the oldest
aqueduct in history at Jerwan, across the Gomel River. To bring new water
supplies to the city, he cut channels for 20 kilometers (30 miles) from
the
Gomel River at Bavian and built a dam at Ajeila to control the flooding of
the
Khosr river.
In the years 1849-1851 archaeologist A. Layard unearthed the 71-room
palace of Sennacherib. The mound also yielded the royal palace and library
of Ashurbanipal, which housed 22,000 inscribed clay tablets. These tablets
included Assyrian creation and flood accounts which furnished Old
Testament scholars with valuable information for background studies on the
Book of Genesis.
It was to Nineveh that Sennacherib brought the tribute which he exacted
from King Hezekiah of Judah <2 Kin. 18:15>. He also returned here
after his
campaign against Jerusalem and Palestine in 701 B. C. In 681 B. C. he was
assassinated in the temple of Nisroch, which must have been situated
within
the city walls.
Esarhaddon, the younger son and successor to Sennacherib, recaptured
Nineveh from rebels in 680 B. C. Here he built a palace for himself,
although
he spent much time in his other residence in Calah. One of his twin sons,
Ashurbanipal, returned to live mainly at Nineveh where he had been crown
prince during his school days. It was during his last days and the years
of his
sons Ahsur-etil-ilani and Sin-shar-ishkun that Assyria's vassals revolted.
At the same time the Medes, with the help of the Babylonians, sacked Ashur
and Calah in 614 B. C. Two years later Nineveh fell to these combined
forces.
Nineveh was left in ruins <Nah. 2:10,13> and grazed by sheep <Zeph.
2:13-15>, just as the Hebrew prophets of the Old Testament had
predicted.
Nineveh is such a large site that it will probably never be fully
excavated. A
modern village covers one of its larger palaces. A nearby mound, named
"Mound of the Prophet Jonah," contains the palace of Esarhaddon.
The
popular tradition is that Jonah is buried beneath the mosque at Nebi Yunas.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible
Dictionary) (Copyright (C) 1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)
ASSYRIA
[as SIHR ih ah]-- a kingdom between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers that
dominated the ancient world from the ninth century to the seventh century
B. C. (see Map 1, D-1). After defeating the northern kingdom of Israel in
722
B. C., the Assyrians carried away thousands of Israelites and resettled
them
in other parts of the Assyrian Empire. This was a blow from which the
nation
of Israel never recovered.
The early inhabitants of Assyria were ancient tribesmen <Gen. 10:22>
who
probably migrated from Babylonia. They grew powerful enough around 1300
B. C. to conquer Babylonia. For the next 700 years they were the leading
power in the ancient world, with their leading rival nation, Babylon,
constantly challenging them for this position.
Tiglath-Pileser I (1120-1100 B. C.) built the Assyrian kingdom to the most
extensive empire of the age. But under his successors, it declined in
power
and influence. This decline offered the united kingdom of Judah, under the
leadership of David and Solomon, the opportunity to reach its greatest
limits.
If the Assyrians had been more powerful at that time, they probably would
have interfered with the internal affairs of the Hebrew people, even at
that
early date.
After the Assyrians had languished in weakness for an extended period,
Ashurnasirpal (884-860 B. C.) restored much of the prestige of the empire.
His son, Shalmaneser III, succeeded him, and reigned from about 860 to 825
B. C. Shalmaneser was the first Assyrian king to come into conflict with
the
northern kingdom of Israel.
In an effort to halt the Assyrian expansion, a group of surrounding
nations
formed a coalition, of which Israel was a part. Ahab was king of Israel
during
this time. But the coalition eventually split up, allowing the Assyrians
to
continue their relentless conquest of surrounding territories.
During the period from 833 to 745 B. C., Assyria was engaged in internal
struggles as well as war with Syria. This allowed Israel to operate
without
threat from the Assyrian army. During this time, Jeroboam II, king of
Israel,
was able to raise the Northern Kingdom to the status of a major nation
among the countries of the ancient Near East.
The rise of Tiglath-Pileser III (745-727 B. C.) marked the beginning of a
renewed period of Assyrian oppression for the nation of Israel.
TiglathPileser, known also in the Bible as PUL <2 Kin. 15:19>, set
out to
regain territories previously occupied by the Assyrians. He was resisted
by
a coalition led by Rezin of Damascus and Pekah of Israel. These rulers
tried
to force Ahaz, king of Judah, to join them. When Ahaz refused, Rezin and
Pekah marched on Jerusalem, intent on destroying the city. Against the
counsel of the prophet Isaiah, Ahaz enlisted the aid of Tiglath-Pileser
for
protection. This protection cost dearly. From that day forth, Israel was
required to pay tribute to Assyria. Israel also was forced to adopt some
of
the religious practices of the Assyrians <2 Kings 16>.
Tiglath-Pileser was succeeded by his son, Shalmaneser V (727-722 B. C.).
When Hoshea, king of Israel, who had been placed on the throne by
Tiglath-Pileser, refused to pay the required tribute, Shalmaneser attacked
Samaria, the capital of Israel. After a long siege, Israel fell to Assyria
in 722
B. C., perhaps to Sargon II; and 27,000 inhabitants of Israel were
deported to
Assyrian territories. This event marked the end of the northern kingdom of
Israel. Most of the deported Hebrews never returned to their homeland.
Israel's sister nation, the southern kingdom of Judah, also felt the power
of
the Assyrian Empire. In 701 B. C., Sennacherib, king of Assyria (705-681
B.
C.), planned an attack on Jerusalem. However, the Assyrian army was struck
by a plague, which the Bible referred to as "the angel of the
Lord" <2 Kin.
19:35>. Thousands of Assyrian soldiers died, and Sennacherib was forced
to
retreat from his invasion. Thus, Jerusalem was saved from Assyrian
oppression by divine intervention.
The religion of the Assyrians, much like that of the Babylonians,
emphasized worship of nature. They believed every object of nature was
possessed by a spirit. The chief god was Asshur. All other primary gods
whom they worshiped were related to the objects of nature. These included
Anu, god of the heavens; Bel, god of the region inhabited by man, beasts,
and birds; Ea, god of the waters; Sin, the moon-god; Shamash, the sun-god;
and Ramman, god of the storms. These gods were followed by five gods of
the planets. In addition to these primary gods, lesser gods also were
worshiped. In some cases, various cities had their own patron gods. The
pagan worship of the Assyrians was soundly condemned by several
prophets of the Old Testament <Is. 10:5; Ezek. 16:28; Hos. 8.9>
The favorite pursuits of the Assyrian kings were war and hunting.
Archaeologists have discovered that the Assyrians were merciless and
savage people. The Assyrian army was ruthless and effective. Its cruelty
included burning cities, burning children, impaling victims on stakes,
beheading, and chopping off hands. But, like Babylon, whom God used as an
instrument of judgment against Judah, Assyria became God's channel of
punishment and judgment against Israel because of their sin and idolatry.
Because of the cruelty and paganism of the Assyrians, the Hebrew people
harbored deep-seated hostility against this nation. This attitude is
revealed
clearly in the Book of Jonah. When God instructed Jonah to preach to
Nineveh, the capital of Assyria, Jonah refused and went in the opposite
direction. After he finally went to Nineveh, the prophet was disappointed
with God because He spared the city.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible
Dictionary) (Copyright (C) 1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)
PALESTINE
[PAL ess tyne]-- the land promised by God to Abraham and his descendants
and eventually the region where the Hebrew people lived (see Map 7, D-2).
Palestine (or Palestina) is a tiny land bridge between the continents of
Asia,
Africa, and Europe. The word itself originally identified the region as
"the
land of the Philistines," a war-like tribe that inhabited much of the
region
alongside the Hebrew people. But the older name for Palestine was
CANAAN, the term most frequently used in the Old Testament. The AMARNA
Letters of the 14th century B. C. referred to "the land of
Canaan," applying
the term to the coastal region inhabited by the PHOENICIANS. After the
Israelites took the land from the Canaanites, the entire country became
known as the "land of Israel" <1 Sam. 13:19; Matt. 2:20>
and the "land of
promise" <Heb. 11:9>.
The term Palestine as a name for the entire land of Canaan, beyond the
coastal plains of the Phoenicians, was first used by the fifth century B.
C.
historian Herodotus. After the Jewish revolt of A. D. 135, the Romans
replaced the Latin name Judea with the Latin Palaestina as their name for
this province. Although the prophet Zechariah referred to this region as
the
"Holy Land" <Zech. 2:12>, it was not until the Middle Ages
that this land
became popularly known as the Holy Land.
Location. The medieval concept that Palestine was the center of the earth
is
not as farfetched as one might expect. This tiny strip of land not only
unites
the peoples and lands of Asia, Africa, and Europe but also the five seas
known as the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Red
Sea, and the Persian Gulf. Palestine was sandwiched in between two
dominant cultures of the ancient world-- Egypt to the south and
BabylonAssyria-Persia between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers to the
northeast.
Palestine is also the focal point of the three great world religions:
Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam. It has been the land corridor for most of the
world's
armies and, according to the Book of Revelation, will be the scene of the
final great conflict of history, the battle of Armageddon <Rev.
16:16>.
The boundaries of Palestine were not clearly defined in ancient times-- a
problem which plagues the area even today. Generally, the Hebrews
occupied the land bordered on the south by the Wadi el'Arish and Kadesh
Barnea and on the north by the foothills of Mount Hermon. The
Mediterranean Sea formed a natural western boundary and the Jordan River
a natural eastern boundary, except that several of the Israelite tribes
occupied the region known as TRANSJORDAN, the land east of the Jordan
River.
At certain times in Israel's history, the territory they occupied was much
larger. During the days of the United Monarchy under David and Solomon,
Israel controlled Hamath, Damascus, and the region beyond as far as the
Euphrates River. They also held dominion over Ammon, Moab, and Edom,
stretching the nation's borders from the mountains of Lebanon to the
waters
of the Red Sea.
The boundaries of the Promised Land defined in <Numbers 34>, as
promised to Moses, were much more extensive than the region in which the
Hebrews eventually settled. The southern boundary was placed at Kadesh
Barnea and the northern boundary at "the entrance of Hamath"
<Num. 34:8>,
which may either be the entrance to the Biqa Valley between the Lebanon
and Anti-Lebanon Mountains or farther north near modern Lebweh, some 23
kilometers (14 miles) north of historic Baalbek.
It is also clear that the land promised to Abraham and his descendants for
an everlasting possession included an area similar to that seen by Moses
and greater than that area actually inhabited by the Israelites. This
covenant
promise to Abraham is the basis for the modern Israeli claim to Palestine
<Gen. 12:7; 28:4; 48:4>.
Size. To the jet-age traveler Palestine seems quite small. The expression
"from Dan to Beersheba" <1 Sam. 3:20> refers to a
north-south distance of
only about 240 kilometers (150 miles). The width of the region is even
less
impressive. In the north, from Acco on the coast to the Sea of Galilee is
a
distance of only 45 kilometers (28 miles). In the broader south, from Gaza
on
the coast to the Dead Sea is a distance of only 88 kilometers (54 miles).
The
distance between Jaffa and Jericho is only 72 kilometers (45 miles);
Nazareth to Jerusalem is only 98 kilometers (60 miles).
The land area from Dan to Beersheba in Cis-Jordan (the region west of the
Jordan River) is approximately 6,000 square miles-- a region smaller than
Hawaii. If the area east of the Jordan River is included, the maximum
total
area of Palestine amounts to only 10,000 square miles-- an area smaller
than
the state of Maryland.
People. The history of Palestine is complicated by the many different
cultures and civilizations that have flourished in the region. The first
historical reference to the inhabitants of Canaan occurs in <Genesis
10>.
Canaan, the son of Ham and the grandson of Noah <Gen. 10:6; 5:32>,
is said
to have fathered most of the inhabitants of the land. These include Sidon
(the Phoenicians), Heth (the Hittites), and the Jebusites (who lived near
Jerusalem), the Amorites (in the hill country), the Girgashites (unknown),
the
Hivites (peasants from the northern hills), the Arkites (from Arka in
Phoenicia), the Sinites (from the northern coast of Lebanon), the
Arvadites
(from the island of Arvad), the Zemarites (from Sumra), and the Hamathites
(from Hamath; <Gen. 10:15-18>).
The native inhabitants of Canaan were tall, giant-like, and stalwart races
known as the Anakim <Josh. 11:21-22>, the Rephaim <Gen. 14:5>,
the Emim,
Zamzummim, and Horites <Deut. 2:10-23>. They lived in the hill
country, and
traces of their primitive population continued as late as the days of the
United Monarchy under David and Solomon <2 Sam. 21:16-22>. When
Abraham arrived in the Promised Land it was almost entirely inhabited by
the Canaanites, with a mixture of Edomites, Ammonites, and Moabites.
History. The history of Palestine gains its significance for the Bible
student
with the beginning of the biblical period. But the region was inhabited by
other cultures long before Abraham and his family arrived.
Prebiblical Period (Tower of Babel-- 2000 B. C.)-- As the human race was
scattered over the earth, a number of cultures emerged. Small city-states
began to be organized in Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and
Euphrates Rivers. A Sumerian civilization (about 2800-2360 B. C.) was one
of
the earliest, classical civilizations of the world. The Akkadians as well
built
their cities in the TigrisEuphrates plain. Almost at the same time Egypt
emerged as a unified nation. In the 29th century B. C. the kingdoms of
Upper
and Lower Egypt were united, and a world power was born. Palestine
witnessed the same urban development and population increases during
this period. The cities of Jericho, Megiddo, Beth Shan, Ai, Shechem, Gezer,
Lachish, and others were all in existence at this time.
Old Testament Period (Abraham-- 2000 B. C. and after)-- About 2000 B. C.
the
patriarch Abraham arrived in Canaan from Ur of the Chaldees and found the
land controlled by Amorites and Canaanites. Abraham lived for a while in
Egypt, where he was exposed to this great culture of the ancient world. He
saw the great pyramids of Egypt and eventually returned to Palestine,
where
the wealth and influence of his family and his descendants expanded
through the land.
For 430 years the descendants of Abraham were in Egyptian bondage, but
God raised up a champion in Moses to lead them back to the Land of
Promise <Exodus 3>. God strengthened the new leader of Israel,
Joshua
<Josh. 1:1-9>, and he led the people in successful campaigns to win
control
of Palestine <Josh. 11:16-23>. The period of the judges which
followed
indicated the continuous struggle which Israel had with the peoples of the
land <Judg. 2:16-23>.
With the rise of the United Monarchy under David <2 Sam. 8:1-18> and
Solomon <1 Kin. 9:15-11:13>, the Hebrew people extended their
influence
over more of Palestine than ever before. But about 920 B. C. Israel was
divided into two segments, the northern kingdom of Israel, and the
southern
kingdom of Judah. These were turbulent times in the history of the Jewish
people. The Old Testament period came to an end with the fall of Samaria,
the capital of Israel, in 721 B. C. The Assyrians took Israel into
captivity and
this nation ceased to exist <2 Kin. 17:1-6>.
Babylonian Period (605-562 B. C.)-- The influence of the Babylonians in
the
land of Palestine was swift and deadly. In 605 B. C. Nebuchadnezzar, king
of
Babylon, annihilated the Egyptian army, effectively controlling all of
Palestine to the Egyptian border. In 597 B. C. Jerusalem fell to the
Babylonians. Jehoiachin the king was carried into captivity. Ten years
later
the city of Jerusalem was destroyed and nearly all the Jewish inhabitants
of
Palestine were carried away as captives to Babylon <2 Kin. 25:1-21>.
Persian Period (549-332 B. C.)-- When Cyrus, the king of Persia, conquered
Babylon, he allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem. In 536 B. C. the
first
group of Jews returned to Jerusalem under Sheshbazzar <Ezra 1:1-11>.
As a
Persian province, the region was governed by regional rulers under Persian
authority.
Greek Period (332-167 B. C.)-- During this period Alexander the Great
conquered Palestine. Upon his death the land fell to the Ptolemies of
Egypt
and the Seleucids of Syria. In 167 B. C. the Seleucid king Antiochus IV
(Antiochus Epiphanes) polluted the Jewish Temple by offering swine on the
altar and putting up a statue of a pagan god.
Maccabean Period (167-63 B. C.)-- Under the leadership of the aged priest
Mattathias and his sons, the Jewish people revolted against the Seleucids
and enjoyed nearly 100 years of independence.
Roman Period (63 B. C.-- A. D. 300)|--In 63 B. C. Pompey conquered
Palestine
for Rome. From 37 B. C. until 4 B. C. Herod the Great ruled the land as
the
Roman king under the Caesars. During the reign of this Herod, Jesus was
born in Bethlehem. During Roman rule also, Christianity was born. In A. D.
70
Jerusalem was destroyed by the Roman general Titus as he crushed a revolt
by the Jewish people.
Pre-Modern Period (A. D. 330-1917)|--During these years, Palestine was
under the successive rules of the Byzantines (330-634), the Persians
(607-29), the Arabs (634-1099), the Crusaders (1099-1263), the Mamelukes
(1263-1516) and the Turks (1517-1917). The most important historical
events
during this period were Saladin's consolidation of his control of Egypt,
Syria,
Mesopotamia, and most of Palestine in A. D. 1187 by his victory over the
crusader kingdom of Jerusalem and the establishment of the Turkish
Ottoman Empire in A. D. 1517.
Modern Period (1917--Present)|--In 1917 the Balfour Declaration liberated
Palestine from Turkish rule and placed the land under the control of Great
Britain. On May 14, 1948, the modern State of Israel was established, and
the
British withdrew. Almost immediately the Jews and Arabs began their
struggle for control of the land of Palestine. The borders of Palestine
have
been in a state of flux ever since.
The Geography of Palestine. The geography of Palestine falls naturally
into
five regions: the coastal plain, the central highlands, the Rift Valley,
the
Transjordan plateau, and the Negev.
The coastal plain-- The coastal lowlands run along the western border of
Palestine at the Mediterranean Sea. The plain varies in width from less
than
5 kilometers (3 miles) to more than 40 kilometers (25 miles), but it forms
an
almost straight line for more than 320 kilometers (200 miles) north to
south.
At the famous Ladder of Tyre in Upper Galilee, the hills reach the coast
and
divide the Plain of Phoenicia from the Plain of Acco. The Plain of Acco is
about 13 kilometers (8 miles) wide and 40 kilometers (25 miles) long. It
was
the region allotted to the tribe of Asher <Josh. 19:24-31>. At the
foot of
Mount Carmel the coastal plain is only a few hundred feet wide, but it
quickly
widens into the Plain of Dor and, at the Crocodile River (the Wadi Zerqa),
into
the marshy Plain of Sharon. The Plain of Sharon is some 64-80 kilometers
(40-50 miles) in length and 13-16 kilometers (8-10 miles) wide. A fertile
region, it was once covered with oak forests. Through it flow five
streams,
including the river Kanah, which in ancient Israel divided the territories
of
Ephraim and Manasseh. South of the Plain of Sharon is the triangle known
as
the Philistine Plain where the five lords of the Philistines build their
great
cities: Ekron, Gath, Ashdod, Ashkelon, and Gaza <1 Sam. 6:17>.
One problem with this coastal plain is that it did not have a natural
harbor.
Joppa was a precarious harbor formed by offshore reefs <2 Chr. 2:16;
Acts
9:36>. Caesarea was built by Herod the Great, who created an artificial
harbor. This territory was of little value to the ancient Israelites, a
fact which
may have contributed to Philistine dominance of the coastal plains long
after
the Israelites conquered Canaan.
The central highlands-- Between the coastal plain and the hill country of
Judea and Samaria runs a series of foothills known as the Shephelah. These
hills were the scene of many battles between the Philistines and the
Israelites. It is divided by three valleys: the Valley of Aijalon on the
north,
the Valley of Sorek in the middle, and the Valley of Elah on the south. At
Aijalon Joshua commanded the sun to stand still <Josh. 10:12-14>.
And in
Elah young David killed the giant Goliath <1 Sam. 17:2, 19; 21:9>.
The central highlands are a mountain range running north to south the
length of Palestine. In Lebanon the range rises to over 2,740 meters
(9,000
feet) above sea level at Mount Hermon. The highest peak in Palestine is
Jebel Jermaq, 1,200 meters (3,960 feet), in Upper Galilee.
The highlands consist of several distinct regions. The northernmost region
is Galilee, customarily divided into Upper and Lower Galilee. Upper
Galilee
is almost double the altitude of its lower counterpart with corresponding
differences in climate and vegetation. Lower Galilee has outcrops of chalk
and marl that give the region a rugged beauty. Even today it is populated
with small villages, many of which are mentioned in the New Testament. To
the east lies the Sea of Galilee, separated from Lower Galilee by a series
of
hills and valleys.
South of Galilee is the Plain of Jezreel or Esdraelon. This plain is
actually a
low plateau of the hill country stretching from Mount Carmel on the west
to
Mount Gilboa on the east. This was an important corridor between the Via
Maris, one of the main roads through Palestine, and the road to Damascus
to
the north. Many notable battles have been fought here <Josh. 17:16; 2
Chr.
35:22>. Here too will be fought the Battle of Armageddon <Rev.
16:16;
19:11-21>.
South of the central highlands is
the hill country of Ephraim. This broad
limestone upland consists of fertile valleys, tree-laden hills, and
north-south,
east-west highways. This easy access to Samaria explains this region's
greater receptivity to foreign influences in religion and politics than
that of
Galilee to the north or Judea to the south. The highest of these Samaritan
hills are Mount Ebal (940 meters; 3,084 feet) and Mount Gerizim (881
meters;
2,890 feet).
Unlike the broken terrain of Samaria, the Judean highlands present a solid
barrier that practically shuts off east-to-west traffic. Judea is
subdivided into
the Shephelah, the central hills, and the eastern wilderness. The terrain
of
these three divisions reflects quite a contrast, just like the annual
rainfall
(16-32 inches in the foothills, 32 inches in the highlands, and 12 inches
or
less in the wilderness).
Most of the towns in this region are built on a series of hills, just as
Jerusalem is. All the land to the south is "down," although the
central
highlands continue to climb until they reach the area of Hebron,
Palestine's
highest town (927 meters; 3,040 feet). As one continues south in these
highlands however, the elevation begins to drop. Thus at Beersheba, a few
miles south, the region becomes a triangular depression between the hills
of
Judea and the hills of the Negev.
The central highlands are the most important natural region in Palestine,
boasting of such towns as Nazareth, Shechem, Samaria, Bethel, Jerusalem,
Bethlehem, Hebron, and Beersheba. This region is known as the heartland of
Palestine.
The Rift Valley-- Between the western hills of Israel and the hills east
of the
Jordan River lies the world's deepest depression, known as the Rift
Valley.
Beginning in the valley between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon Mountains
and running south through Palestine, through the Arabah, through the Gulf
of
Aqaba and the Red Sea and on south through eastern Africa, this is the
deepest geological fault on earth. The contrast in elevation is striking.
Mount
Hermon is a majestic 2,814 meters (9,232 feet) above sea level, while the
Sea of Galilee just below it is 212 meters (695 feet) below sea level. The
Jordan River, which flows from the foothills of Hermon to the Sea of
Galilee
and then on south to the Dead Sea, is derived from a word which means
"the
descender." The river is appropriately named. In one nine-mile
stretch the
Jordan plunges 284 meters (850 feet). North of the Sea of Galilee the
river
drops an average of 12 meters (40 feet) per mile. The Jordan is unique in
that
it is the world's only major river that runs below sea level along most of
its
course.
The distance between the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea is approximately
105 kilometers (65 miles). In the Rift Valley, or the Jordan Valley, the
river
has carved a narrow channel called the Zor. A haven for wildlife, this
appears
as a snakelike path of green vegetation when viewed from the air.
In the southern extremity of the Rift Valley, between the Dead Sea and the
Red Sea, is the Arabah. This valley, from three to nine miles wide but 169
kilometers (105 miles) in length, features terrain varying from salt flats
to
badlands. It is watered only by the flowing of seasonal streams in the
rainy
season. From the Gulf of Aqaba the floor of this valley rises to 230
meters
(755 feet) on a steep ridge. From there it drops dramatically, over 152
meters
(500 feet) in two miles, toward the Dead Sea.
The Transjordan plateau-- The beautiful hills of the Transjordan tableland
are
cut by four important rivers as they wind their way to the Rift Valley.
They
are the Yarmuk, Jabbok, Arnon, and Zered Rivers. These rivers provide
natural boundaries for four discernible regions of Transjordan.
North of the Yarmuk River is Bashan, a plateau rising from 213 meters (700
feet) in the west to 914 meters (3,000) feet in the east. South of the
Yarmuk
to the Jabbok is Gilead. This is the most fertile region of Transjordan.
The
rainfall of 28 to 32 inches a year provides sufficient water for rich
agricultural
land and pasture land. This is where the Greco-Roman cities of the region
known as the Decapolis were located. Here, too, the famous "balm of
Gilead" was found. South of the deep Jabbok gorge to the southern tip
of the
Dead Sea lay the kingdoms of Ammon and Moab. Located here were the
capital of the Ammonite kingdom, Rabbah, and Mount Nebo (802 meters;
2,631 feet), the commanding site from which Moses viewed the Promised
Land <Deut. 34:1>. The Arnon River was the approximate border
between
Ammon and Moab, with the Zered River to the south serving as the border
between Moab and Edom.
Edom stretches for a hundred miles above the Arabah. In the Shera
Mountains of Edom the reddish sandstones may have given rise to the
biblical name adom, which means "red." In a basin secluded in
these
mountains is Petra, the famous capital of the Nabatean kingdom. The
conquest of Edom for a brief time during the days of David and Solomon
enabled Solomon to build the port of Ezion Geber on the Red Sea and to
exploit the copper mines in the area <1 Kin. 9:26-28>.
The Negev-- Directly south of Palestine lies the Negev, a barren
wilderness.
Shaped like a triangle with its apex pointing toward the Sinai Peninsula,
the
steppe of the Negev is situated immediately south of the Valley of
Beersheba. It encompasses over 12,500 square miles, more than all of
Palestine itself. The inhabitable sector of the area is a small strip
about 49
kilometers (30 miles) wide from north to south, centered at Beersheba. The
rest of the Negev is a rocky wilderness with the desert pushing in from
all
sides.
Because of its long desert frontier, the Negev has been inhabited mostly
by
tribal herdsmen known as the Bedouins, including the Amalekites <Num.
13:29; 1 Sam. 30:1>. In the Old Testament this area was known as the
Wilderness of Zin and the Wilderness of Paran. Occasionally permanent
settlements would be found here in the days of Abraham and especially in
the days of the Nabatean kingdom. The Negev is crisscrossed with caravan
routes. The important route to Egypt, known as "the way of Shur"
<Gen.
16:7>, went southwest from Beersheba through this area.
Geological Formations. Palestine has a wide variety of geological
formations for a small 10,000 square-mile area. A band of Nubian or Petra
sandstone, red and soft, stretches along the eastern coast of the Dead
Sea.
Above this band is the most important geological formation in Palestine,
the
limestone, which makes up most of the tableland on both sides of the
Jordan
River. This limestone is particularly evident at Jerusalem; reservoirs,
sepulchers, and cellars abound under the city.
The Philistine country north of Mount Carmel consists of sandstone.
Between this sandstone and the sand dunes of the seacoast is a
sedimentary bed. On the eastern side of the Jordan, from Mount Hermon to
south of the Sea of Galilee, is volcanic rock, frequently found in other
parts
of the land. Another notable feature of the region is the blowing sand
from
Egypt and the Sinaitic deserts, which frequently invades the cultivated
sections of Palestine.
On the west shore of Galilee as well as along both shores of the Dead Sea
are hot springs. At the hot springs of Callirrhoe on the eastern shore of
the
Dead Sea, Herod the Great sought relief from his illness. Earthquakes also
played a vital role in Palestinian life. David interpreted an earthquake
as a
sign of the anger of the Lord <Ps. 18:7>. Jonathan's attack at
Michmash was
accompanied by an earthquake <1 Sam. 14:15>. A memorable quake
occurred during the days of Uzziah in the eighth century B. C. <Amos
1:1>.
An earthquake also accompanied the crucifixion of Jesus in Jerusalem
<Matt. 27:51-54>.
The presence of these phenomena-- plus volcanic activity, basalt, sulphur,
petroleum, salt, bromide, phosphate, potash, and other chemicals in and
around the Dead Sea-- make Palestine a geologist's paradise. It is indeed
one of the most unique regions of the world.
The Climate and Vegetation of Palestine. The latitude of Palestine is
approximately the same as southern California or Georgia. It is therefore
marginally subtropical. Situated between the cool winds of the
Mediterranean and the hot winds of the desert, Palestine has a variety of
weather patterns.
Temperature-- The sea breeze has a moderating effect on the coastal plain.
The average temperature at Haifa in January is 56 degrees F. and in August
83 degrees. However, the elevation at Jerusalem (777 meters, or 2,550
feet,
above sea level), brings cooler temperatures, a 48 degrees F. average in
January and a 75 degrees average in August.
In contrast, the temperatures in the Rift Valley are much hotter year
round.
This makes the region comfortably warm in winter but unbearably hot in
summer. Jericho has an average winter temperature of 76 degrees F., but
the temperature consistently climbs well over 100 in the summer. Such
temperature extremes are noted in the Bible. The midday sun caused the
death of a lad in Elisha's day <2 Kin. 4:18-20>, but King Jehoiakim
sat in his
winter house with a fire on the hearth <Jer. 36:22>.
Precipitation-- Two seasons characterize Palestine: winter, which is
moist,
rainy, and mild (November to April), and summer, which is hot with no rain
(May to October). The exact
time when the rainy season begins each year is
not predictable. It usually begins about mid-October and includes our
winter
months plus some additional weeks <Song 2:11>. Rainfall usually
occurs
three to four days in a row, alternating with three to four days of
chilling
winds from the desert.
The Bible frequently refers to "the early rain and the latter
rains" <Deut.
11:14>. This designation does not indicate the period of greatest
rainfall,
which was frequently in January and February <Lev. 26:4; Ezra
10:9,13>, but
the period of the most important rainfall for agriculture. The initial
autumn
rains soften the hard Palestinian soil, making plowing and sowing an
easier
task. The latter rains fall in March and April when rain is needed to make
the
fruit and grain luscious and healthy <Hos. 6:3; Zech. 10:1>.
The greatest amount of precipitation falls on the region of Galilee (28-40
inches a year). Average rainfall for other areas of Palestine are: Haifa
(24
inches); Tiberias (17 inches); Beth Shean (12 inches); Jerusalem (25
inches);
and Jericho (4 inches or less). In the summer the humidity is twice as
intense as during other times of the year. Thus Jericho, with high
temperatures and humidity and little rainfall, is almost unbearable in
summer. However, the summer humidity condenses as the ground cools
during the night. The result is a heavy dew each morning in Palestine.
Gideon was able to collect a bowl of water from dew on a fleece <Judg.
6:38>. Dew was essential for the growing of grapes during the summer
<Zech. 8:12>. Without dew a devastating drought would occur <2
Sam. 1:21;
Hag. 1:10>. Frequently God's grace is compared to the dew <Gen.
27:28;
Hos. 14:5>.
Occasionally Palestine would be the victim of violent precipitation in the
form of hail. Such hail would flatten the standing grain and destroy the
tender vines <Ps. 78:47; Ezek. 13:11,13>. Sometimes hailstones big
enough
to kill a man would fall <Josh. 10:11>. But occasionally the higher
elevations
of Palestine are covered with a light snow during the winter. In David's
time
Benaiah slew a lion on a day when snow fell <2 Sam. 23:20>.
Vegetation-- In areas with adequate precipitation, the abundance of
sunshine and fertile soil make Palestine a garden paradise. More than
3,000
varieties of flowering plants exist in the region-- a large number for
such a
small country. So plentiful were flowers in Bible times that floral
patterns
adorned the branches of the golden lampstand <Ex. 25:31-34> and the
walls
and doors of the Temple <1 Kin. 6:18,29,32>. The rim of the huge
laver in the
Temple was shaped like the flower of a lily <1 Kin. 7:26; 2 Chr.
4:5>.
Trees also grow in abundance in Palestine. Grains and other crops are also
plentiful. The land also produced fruits and vegetables of all kinds,
spices,
herbs, aromatics, perfumes, and preservatives. Although it was the scene
of
many fierce and bloody battles, and yet will be, still Palestine is a
special
place: the Holy Land.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible Dictionary)
(Copyright (C) 1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)
LEBANON
[LEB uh none] (white)-- a nation of the Middle East which includes much of
what was ancient PHOENICIA in Bible times (see Map 9, C-1). This territory
has been an important trade center linking Europe and Asia for more than
4,000 years.
In ancient times the Phoenicians used the citystates of Byblos, Sidon, and
Tyre as the base of a great sea-trading empire in what is now Lebanon.
Over
the years, these city-states were conquered by Egyptians, Assyrians,
Persians, and the Greeks under Alexander the Great. Later still, Lebanon
became part of the Roman Empire, and many inhabitants became Christians.
But when the Arabs conquered Lebanon in the seventh century A. D. many
turned to the Muslim religion.
Early in the 16th century, the Arabs were overthrown by the Turks. Then in
1918 the British and French forces broke up the Turkish or Ottoman Empire
and placed Lebanon under French rule. In 1943, Lebanon achieved
independence. The country has continued to be the scene of strife and
turmoil involving Israelis, Syrians, and Palestinian guerrillas. Civil war
at
times between Muslims and Christians has also added to the strife of this
wartorn country.
Lebanon takes its name from the Lebanon Mountains, which run parallel to
the coast of the MEDITERRANEAN SEA for almost the length of the country.
The range consists of snow-capped limestone peaks that rise sharply from
the shore line, leaving just enough space for a coastal road. The
160-kilometer-long (100-mile-long) mountains are made up of two parallel
ranges, the Lebanons and the Anti-Lebanons. Between the two is the fertile
plain of el-Bekaa, measuring about 48 kilometers (30 miles) by 16
kilometers
(10 miles), which was also called the Valley of Lebanon <Josh.
11:17>.
The scenic beauty of the country has inspired many symbolic references in
the Bible <Ps. 92:12; Song 4:15; 5:15>. The rich vegetation of
Lebanon
became a symbol of fruitfulness and fertility <Ps. 72:16; Ps.
92:12>.
Originally, the famed Cedars of Lebanon covered the region. But bands of
marauding conquerors from Mesopotamia, Egypt, Israel, and Tyre destroyed
the forests by using the wood for palaces, furniture, ships, coffins, and
musical instruments. By the sixth century A. D., the beautiful groves were
almost gone. Egyptian texts from many different periods refer to trade
with
the Phoenician cities that supplied them with lumber from Lebanon.
Ugaritic
and Mesopotamian texts mention that cedars from Lebanon were used in
building their important temples and palaces.
In recent years a program of reforestation has been conducted in national
parks. The prophets of the Old Testament used the destruction of these
magnificent trees by aggressors as a symbol of Israel's destruction <Jer.
22:7; Ezek. 27:5; Zech. 11:2>.
The climate of Lebanon ranges from the almost tropical heat and vegetation
of the plain of Dan to heavy snow in the plain of el-Bekaa. Mainly it has
a
Mediterranean climate with cool, wet winters and hot, dry summers. In the
spring or summer, a searing desert wind sometimes blows in from Syria.
Lebanon is often called "the playground of the Middle East"
because of
summer sports along the coastline and winter sports in the snow-covered
mountains and the el-Bekaa Valley.
The Lebanon Mountains formed the northwest boundary of the land of
Palestine, the "Promised Land" to the Hebrew people <Deut.
1:7; 11:24>.
The original inhabitants of Lebanon were independent, warlike tribes of
Phoenician stock. Further north were the HIVITES and the GEBALITES. It is
occupied today by various sects of Christians and Muslims.
Archaeological discoveries have thrown light on the Canaanites who settled
in neighboring Lebanon after Israel's gradual conquest of Canaan. Hundreds
of clay tablets, dating from the 15th to the 14th centuries B. C., were
uncovered in the ancient city of UGARIT, now modern RAS SHAMRA in
Lebanon. Inscribed in wedge-shaped letters, the tablets reveal an advanced
culture with depraved religious practices.
(from Nelson's Illustrated Bible
Dictionary) (Copyright (C) 1986, Thomas Nelson Publishers)
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